The earliest ukiyo-e were printed using a single carved woodblock and black sumi ink. Known as sumizuri-e (“black-printed pictures”), these monochrome prints relied entirely upon the artist’s line work to create form, texture, and composition. Their visual strength lay in the expressive quality of the carved lines rather than colour. Although comparatively simple, they established the collaborative production methods and carving techniques that formed the foundation of all later ukiyo-e.

Significance: The beginning of commercial woodblock printing, demonstrating the remarkable precision that could be achieved using only black ink.

As public demand for more decorative prints increased, publishers began applying limited colours by hand after printing. Tan-e were enhanced primarily with an orange-red mineral pigment (tan), sometimes accompanied by small touches of yellow or green. Because each impression was coloured individually with brushes, no two examples are exactly alike.

Significance: Represents the first systematic introduction of colour, although colouring remained a manual process rather than part of the printing itself.

The introduction of the brilliant crimson safflower dye (beni) brought greater elegance and refinement to ukiyo-e. This delicate organic pigment became especially popular in portraits of actors and beautiful women, where its vibrant colour added sophistication and appeal. Unfortunately, beni is highly light-sensitive, and many surviving impressions have faded dramatically over time.

Significance: Expanded the artistic possibilities of colour while revealing the limitations of hand colouring and the fragility of certain early pigments.

A major technological advance came with the introduction of benizuri-e, in which separate woodblocks were carved to print individual colours rather than applying them by hand. Typically employing pink (beni) together with green and occasionally yellow or grey, these prints required careful alignment of multiple blocks using registration marks, which was rudimentary, producing charming irregularities . Although the colour palette remained limited, the process greatly improved consistency, efficiency, and visual harmony.

Significance: Marks the transition from hand-coloured prints to true multi-block colour printing, laying the technological foundations for later polychrome printing.

The importation of synthetic Prussian blue (bero-ai) during the early nineteenth century transformed Japanese printmaking. Aizuri-e were printed predominantly in shades of blue, exploiting the pigment’s exceptional brilliance, permanence, and tonal range. The technique became especially associated with landscapes, rivers, waterfalls, and seascapes, where subtle gradations of blue created remarkable depth and atmosphere.

Unlike the earlier stages of ukiyo-e development, aizuri-e was not a technological stepping stone toward polychrome printing. Rather, it was an artistic choice that flourished after full-colour printing had already become well established.

Significance: Demonstrated the expressive potential of a single colour while showcasing the revolutionary impact of imported Prussian blue.

The introduction of nishiki-e marked the greatest technical revolution in the history of ukiyo-e. Using separate carved woodblocks for every colour, precisely aligned through the kento registration system, printers could produce richly coloured images of extraordinary complexity. The name “brocade prints” reflects their luxurious appearance, resembling richly woven silk textiles.

Throughout the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, printers continually refined the nishiki-e process, introducing increasingly sophisticated decorative and special effect techniques.

Significance: The culmination of more than a century of technical innovation, enabling artists and printers to produce the richly coloured and highly sophisticated masterpieces for which Japanese woodblock prints are celebrated today.

Perhaps the best-known printing effect is bokashi, a carefully brushed colour gradient. Rather than covering an entire block evenly with pigment, the printer gradually faded the colour before printing (often blending with water) or wiping the pigment from the woodblock in a controlled manner. This was used by artists to suggest depth and atmosphere, bringing to life the range of tones in the artist’s original design and because the process had to be done by hand, no two examples of gradation are exactly alike.
Types include:
• Ichimonji bokashi – straight horizontal gradient.
• Fuki bokashi – softly brushed atmospheric fade.
• O-bokashi – broad gradual transition.
• Ate-nashi bokashi – extremely subtle fading without obvious edges.